Rethinking Denim: Designing Change From Fibre To Finish
Credit: CottonBro (via Pexels)
10 June 2025
From Levi’s first riveted jeans in 1873 to today’s vast global market worth, predicted to grow to over USD 115 billion by 20291, denim has evolved from simple, humble workwear to a fashion staple in everyone’s wardrobe. Yet beneath its comfort and enduring appeal lies another truth: conventional denim production currently carries a heavy global environmental footprint and social impact, which requires radical innovation.
THE BACKBONE OF DENIM: COTTON
Cotton has traditionally been the foundational raw material in denim manufacturing, accounting for 80% of the natural fibre market and being the second most-commonly produced fibre after polyester2.
The journey of this incredibly popular fibre, from cotton field to blue jeans, traditionally follows a resource-intensive path: cotton is cultivated, then it must be ginned (separating fibre from seeds), spun into yarn, rope-dyed with indigo, woven into denim fabric (traditionally using a twill weave structure that creates the characteristic diagonal ribbing), and finally cut and sewn into garments.
Each of these steps can have a considerable environmental footprint, as they may involve high water consumption, intensive energy use, and the application of harmful chemicals.
For these reasons, cotton has sparked a lot of debate about its impact and, unfortunately, a lot of misinformation too. Before we dive into it, let’s test our knowledge regarding the most common claims about cotton (from the report by Transformers Foundation, Cotton: A case study in misinformation:
👉 Cotton is a “water-thirsty” crop. Myth or Fact?
→ Answer: Cotton is actually drought-tolerant by nature. Water usage issues are primarily tied to regional conditions, insufficient infrastructure, and poor governance rather than the crop itself.
👉 Cotton consumes 20,000 litres of water per kilogram of fibre. Myth or Fact?
→ Answer: This widely cited figure is based on outdated studies from specific regions with poor water management. Global averages range from 1,500 to 7,000 litres, depending on region, with rainfed cotton requiring significantly less irrigation than commonly believed.
👉 Cotton uses 25% of global insecticides. Myth or Fact?
→ Answer: This statistic originated from 1980s-90s data before widespread adoption of integrated pest management and biotech innovations. Today’s figures show cotton accounts for approximately 5-10% of global pesticide use (though this varies by region).
The reality is that the environmental impact often attributed to cotton isn’t inherent to the fibre itself, but largely depends on how and where it’s grown. Water use, pesticide application, and safety risks vary widely across regions, shaped by local climate, education on farming methods, and the presence (or absence) of strong infrastructure and regulation.
Adoption of resource-efficient systems to grow cotton hinges on farmer training, technology access, and financial support, all of which are often limited in low-income regions. In short: while cotton can have significant environmental impacts (as is the case with any fibre produced at scale without adequate infrastructure), it’s not the fibre itself, but rather poor governance and unequal access to resources that drive these outcomes.
Credit: Circulose
RETHINKING MATERIALS FOR DENIM PRODUCTION
Resource-efficient and more sustainable alternatives to traditionally grown cotton are emerging at the raw material stage, with multiple pathways for improvement. In particular, two areas are showing significant promise: 1) improved cultivation practices that reduce harm to ecosystems and communities, and 2) material diversification that explores alternatives to traditional fibre and blends.
Improved cultivation practices include organic agriculture and regenerative agriculture principles. These approaches combined signal a deeper change: growing cotton in ways that respect natural limits and help rebuild what’s been lost to build back the environment and its communities’ health. Organic practices aim to work with nature, avoiding synthetic chemicals and encouraging healthier soils and ecosystems. Multi-stakeholder initiatives like the Organic Cotton Accelerator (OCA) are crucial, as they are helping strengthen these systems by supporting farmers and scaling organic production. Regenerative agriculture focuses on rebuilding soil health, boosting biodiversity, and supporting resilient farming communities. Materra is one example of this in action, developing closed-loop systems that combine water efficiency with practices that restore the soil.
Because so many people depend on cotton cultivation for their livelihoods, any material strategy must carefully consider the potential impact on local communities. When approached holistically, one promising alternative pathway to create more sustainable denim is material diversification, by introducing alternative fibres. Denim today is often not made from 100% cotton: instead, it includes a mix of other fibres to enhance qualities like stretch, strength, or durability. These blends have relied heavily on synthetic fibres, which are often derived from fossil fuels. Some of the innovations working in material diversification to conventional cotton include:
- Cottonised hemp: the SEFF process transforms hemp’s naturally stiff fibres into cotton-like softness, making it viable for comfortable denim.
- Chemically-recycled fibres: innovations like Circulose transform worn-out garments into new cellulosic fibres, reducing landfill waste while preserving resources.
- Mechanically recycled cotton: companies like Recover and Säntis Textiles are perfecting techniques to process textile waste back into spinnable fibres without chemical processing.
While most alternative fibres currently available are not a one-to-one replacement for cotton, transformative companies like Galy are developing lab-grown cotton that grows in bioreactors rather than fields, potentially using 80% less resources.
Credit: IndiDye
BEYOND MATERIALS: PROCESSING DENIM
Processing, and particularly dyeing and garment finishing (which play a critical role in defining the final look and feel of the product), tends to be the most resource-intensive stage. The environmental challenges tied to this phase are mainly related to two critical factors: the use of toxic chemicals and the intensive consumption and mismanagement of water.
Indigo dye, the source of denim’s iconic blue, is notoriously resource-intensive. Traditional methods require multiple dips, rinses, and oxidation cycles, often using outdated techniques like overflow rinsing, once considered effective but now known to waste significant amounts of water. This is especially concerning given that denim production often occurs in water-scarce regions already facing drought and water stress. Beyond water use, synthetic indigo has also historically contained aniline, a carcinogenic substance, which relies on reducing agents that if not properly managed, produce toxic wastewater. These chemical challenges are particularly difficult to overcome, especially in areas lacking adequate wastewater treatment infrastructure and financing.
Garment finishing, which is the stage where denim is softened, distressed, or given a “worn-in” look, is another major contributor, as it often involves chemicals, and uses abrasive techniques that, if not carefully controlled, can release harmful substances into the environment. Chemicals pose the greatest challenge in this stage4: only 29% of finishing processes are currently considered low-impact, while a significant 24% fall into the high-impact category. Many of these finishing processes take place in factories that don’t have access to safer chemistry alternatives or modern systems that reuse water and chemicals. On top of that, workers often don’t have access to safety equipment or receive enough training on how to use safer methods, or the factory lacks the technical know-how to make improvements. As a result, toxic chemicals from finishing processes can end up in nearby rivers and lakes, polluting the environment and putting local communities at risk.
There are clear opportunities to improve denim dyeing and finishing, especially when it comes to infrastructure and safety. Stronger regulatory frameworks can ensure factories follow safety protocols and train workers properly. Alongside this, standardised chemical inventories and greater supply chain transparency can make it easier to identify and eliminate hazardous substances from production.
Industry-led efforts, such as the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC) programme, are helping accelerate this transition by offering practical tools, guidance, and certification schemes to support suppliers in adopting safer, verified practices. These systemic improvements are essential, especially in regions where outdated techniques and limited wastewater treatment infrastructure remain common.
In parallel, a wave of innovations is offering new ways to reduce the resource intensity of denim processing:
- Printing technologies that completely eliminate the majority of traditional dyeing and washing steps, like companies like NTX Cooltrans, which uses an innovative digital printing technology to create the classic worn and distressed effects on denim without water-intensive processes.
- Dyeing technologies with reduced water consumption, like IndiDye and Sonovia’s ultrasonic technologies for indigo dyeing.
- Drop in technologies that reduce harmful chemicals, such as FIBRE52’s patented prepare-for-dyeing system for cotton and other cellulose fibres at low temperatures.
- Process innovations like CleanKore‘s technology that results in keeping the dye on the surface of the yarn, eliminating the need for additional bleaching or spraying steps and reducing water, energy, and chemical use across the process.
Credit: Resortecs
THE CIRCULARITY CHALLENGE
Creating sustainable denim doesn’t only mean implementing better, safer, and less resource-intensive production methods, but it also requires a shift in how jeans are designed, used, cared for and disposed of. True circularity encompasses more than just recycling; it includes extending the lifespan of garments through reuse and repair, helping reduce overall demand for new materials and lowering environmental impact.
That said, one of the biggest challenges lies in designing denim that can actually be recycled at the end of its life. Material complexity is a key barrier: even small amounts of elastane, for instance, make denim difficult to process with current recycling technologies. Added to this are issues related to component variety (zippers, rivets, and back patches that all need to be removed), and this creates inefficiencies and material loss. Design innovation here plays a key role, and forward-thinking brands like Resortecs, who make dissolvable threads for easy disassembly, are exploring construction methods that make garments easier to take apart at end-of-life, simplifying recycling and reducing waste.
Compounding the issue is technical limitation: conventional mechanical recycling technologies, which are currently the most accessible, environmental and cost-friendly option, are delivering outputs with a shorter fibre length, meaning recycled denim often lacks the quality of virgin material. Innovators like PurFi are leading change in this area by developing fibre rejuvenation technologies that restore worn-out cotton to near-virgin quality (potentially unlocking closed-loop recycling), while keeping at cost-competitive prices.
The reality is that circularity is made of many interconnected players that operate at the design and material level, to collection, sorting, and recycling systems level. That’s why initiatives like the Denim Deal, which is supported by Fashion for Good, are fundamental in achieving change that is truly systemic, as they are already bringing together brands, manufacturers, and recyclers to commit to circular practices (such as including a minimum percentage of post-consumer recycled cotton in new garments), enabling collective commitment and support to sustainability.
¹ Research and Markets. (2024). Denim Jeans Market Outlook, 2029. Available here.
²,³ Transformers Foundation. (2021). Cotton: A case study in misinformation. Available here.
4Jeanologia (2024). Innovations and challenges in denim finishing [PDF]. Available at this link.
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